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BASIC
ELECTRONICS COURSE

THE SCHMITT TRIGGER

Page 49 engineering thermodynamics by vijayaraghavanpdf better INDEX
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One of the most universal chips is the Hex Schmitt Trigger, known as the 74C14. It is also marketed as 40106, 40014, and 74HC14. These are CMOS chips and are characterised by low current consumption, high input impedance and a supply voltage from 5v to 15v. (Do not substitute 7414 or  74LS14. They are TTL chips and operate on 4.5v to 5.5v and have low impedance inputs.)

Fig: 1 shows the six Schmitt gates in a 74c14 chip. 

engineering thermodynamics by vijayaraghavanpdf better   engineering thermodynamics by vijayaraghavanpdf better

Fig: 2 shows the symbol for a single input Schmitt Trigger Inverter with power rails: 

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Fig 3 shows the Schmitt Trigger characteristic incorporated into other gates:

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We will concentrate on the single-input Schmitt Trigger gate as contained in the 74c14 IC. 
Fig: 4 shows the Schmitt Trigger Characteristic:  

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The output is HIGH until the input rises to 66% of rail voltage. 
The output goes LOW when the input goes above 66%.
The output remains HIGH until the input fall to 33%. 

A Schmitt Trigger gate can be wired as an oscillator, delay, inverter (and other functions, depending on the surrounding components). 
Fig: 5 shows the Schmitt Trigger wired as an oscillatordelay and inverter:

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Each of the 6 gates in the 74c14 can be used to create a separate "building block" and this gives the chip a wide range of capabilities. 

THE FREQUENCY OF AN OSCILLATOR
When a capacitor and resistor are added to a Schmitt Trigger gate, as shown in the first circuit 
of Fig: 5 above, the result is an oscillator called a MULTIVIBRATOR. A multivibrator has the feature of producing a square wave and this waveshape can have equal high and low periods (called 50:50 mark:space ratio) or any ratio of high and low periods. The HIGH period is called the MARK and the LOW is called the SPACE
The frequency of an oscillator depends on the value of R and C. There is no fixed "ratio" for these components however it is best to refer to sample circuits to see the values needed for a particular frequency - otherwise you may arrive at "unusual" combinations such as very large capacitors and very small resistors to achieve a high frequency. 
The frequency of a Schmitt oscillator is determined by the following equation: 
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An easier equation to work with is:
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Oscillator circuits for the 74c14 can be separated into three categories:
1. Low frequency
2. Medium frequency, and
3. High frequency
Low frequency oscillators are below 1Hz and can also be classified as DELAY circuits or TIMING circuits. 
Medium frequency oscillators range from 1Hz to about 500kHz. 
High frequency oscillators are above 500kHz. 
We separate circuits into three categories due to the value of capacitor needed. 
For low frequency oscillators the capacitor is an electrolytic, ranging from 1u to 220u.
For medium frequency circuits the capacitor is a ceramic 1n to 100n
For high frequency circuits the capacitor is a ceramic 47p to 1n
The value of R should be in the range 10k to 4M7 in all cases. 
The maximum frequency for a particular chip will depend on the supply voltage and the type of chip. 
Some chips do not like supply voltages below 5v (maximum supply voltage is 15v for all chips in this discussion) while other chips (HS) are especially made for high speed operation. All chips will operate up to 500kHz with a 5v to 12v supply. Requirements outside this range will need special investigation. Some chips are designed to operate down to 2-3v.
  
Fig: 6 shows sample oscillator circuits with approximate values for R and C.
 

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Fig: 6 Low, Medium and High frequency Schmitt Trigger Oscillators

 
FREQUENCY CALCULATORS

Engineering Thermodynamics By Vijayaraghavanpdf | Better

To understand if this is the right book for you, it helps to compare it with the industry standards.

| Feature | Vijayaraghavan | P.K. Nag | Cengel & Boles | | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | | Primary Strength | Exam Preparation & Numericals | Conceptual Depth & GATE Prep | Theoretical Intuition | | Language | Simple & Direct | Technical & Dense | Conversational & Rich | | Difficulty Level | Beginner to Intermediate | Intermediate to Advanced | Beginner | | Best For | Passing University Exams | Cracking Competitive Exams | Understanding Core Concepts |

Verdict: If you are struggling to pass your semester exams, start with Vijayaraghavan. Once you are comfortable with the numericals, move to P.K. Nag for deeper insights, especially if you are preparing for GATE.


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Engineering Thermodynamics Dr. G.K. Vijayaraghavan is highly regarded by students specifically for its alignment with university syllabi

(particularly Anna University) and its simplified approach to complex concepts. While "better" is subjective, it is often preferred by undergraduates who find standard reference books like too dense or calculation-heavy for initial learning. Key Strengths of Vijayaraghavan's Book Syllabus Focus:

Explicitly designed for the 3rd-semester Mechanical and Automobile engineering curriculum of Anna University and affiliated colleges. Simplified Language:

Uses a straightforward style to explain abstract topics like entropy, availability, and the second law of thermodynamics, which students often find challenging. Structured Layout: The book is divided into 5 clear units: Basic concepts, Zeroth law, and First law applications.

Second law, Carnot cycles, Clausius inequality, and entropy. Properties of pure substances and Rankine cycles. Ideal and real gases. Gas mixtures and psychrometry. Comparison: Vijayaraghavan vs. Other Standard Texts

While Vijayaraghavan is excellent for exam preparation and clarity, it serves a different purpose than advanced reference texts: G.K. Vijayaraghavan P.K. Nag / Cengel & Boles Primary Goal Exam success and syllabus coverage Deep conceptual understanding and research Complexity Simplified, direct explanations High level of mathematical rigor Problem Sets Standard university-level problems Wide variety of challenging engineering problems Undergraduates starting the course Advanced students and competitive exams (GATE/ESE) Verdict: Is it "Better"? Yes, for exams:

If you are studying for university semester exams and need a book that mirrors your syllabus exactly with easy-to-follow steps, Vijayaraghavan is arguably better. No, for mastery:

If you are preparing for competitive exams like GATE or want a deeper dive into the physics of thermodynamics, books like Cengel & Boles are generally the gold standard. Engg Thermodynamics - Vijaragavan (Unit-1&2) | PDF - Scribd

While many students search for "Engineering Thermodynamics by Vijayaraghavan PDF," finding a high-quality, legitimate copy can be tricky. Dr. G.K. Vijayaraghavan’s textbook is a staple for mechanical engineering students, particularly those following the Anna University syllabus, because it simplifies complex energy concepts into digestible lessons.

If you are looking to master the subject, here is why this specific resource is highly regarded and how you can best utilize it. Why Vijayaraghavan’s Approach is "Better"

Thermodynamics is often considered one of the "gatekeeper" subjects in engineering. It is abstract, mathematically heavy, and requires a strong grasp of sign conventions. Vijayaraghavan’s text stands out for several reasons:

Syllabus Alignment: It is meticulously structured to cover the five units typically found in undergraduate engineering programs, focusing heavily on the First and Second Laws, Properties of Pure Substances, and Gas Cycles.

Solved Examples: The book is famous for its "problem-first" approach. Instead of overwhelming the reader with theoretical proofs, it provides numerous step-by-step solved problems that mirror exam patterns.

Simplicity of Language: Unlike international editions (like Cengel or Moran), which can be quite dense, Vijayaraghavan uses straightforward English tailored for students who want to grasp core concepts quickly. Key Topics Covered The book provides comprehensive coverage of:

Basic Concepts and First Law: Understanding system boundaries, work, heat, and the conservation of energy in steady-flow processes.

Second Law and Entropy: A clear breakdown of the Kelvin-Planck and Clausius statements, heat engines, and the concept of "disorder."

Properties of Pure Substances: Using steam tables and Mollier charts—a common pain point for students.

Ideal and Real Gases: Thermodynamic relations and the behavior of gas mixtures.

Psychrometry: Essential for students focusing on Refrigeration and Air Conditioning (HVAC). The PDF vs. Physical Copy Debate

While searching for a "better" PDF version online is convenient for quick reference or studying on a tablet, there are distinct advantages to owning the physical book:

Clarity of Diagrams: Scanned PDFs often blur the Property Diagrams (P-V, T-S, h-s), which are crucial for understanding cycle analysis.

Exam Preparation: Since many thermodynamics exams allow the use of approved Steam Tables, having a physical book helps you get used to flipping through data charts quickly.

Support for Authors: Purchasing the official Lakshmi Publications edition ensures you have the most up-to-date content, including the latest solved University question papers. How to Use the Book Effectively

To truly get the "better" experience from this textbook, don't just read it—practice it. Follow the Sign Conventions: Thermodynamics is all about +/−positive / minus engineering thermodynamics by vijayaraghavanpdf better

. Stick strictly to the conventions Vijayaraghavan lays out to avoid errors in work and heat calculations.

Master the Steam Tables: Use the book’s appendices to practice looking up enthalpy and entropy values until it becomes second nature.

Solve the Unsolved: After reviewing the solved examples, attempt the exercise problems at the end of each chapter without looking at the solutions. Conclusion

"Engineering Thermodynamics" by G.K. Vijayaraghavan remains a top-tier recommendation for its clarity and exam-oriented focus. Whether you are using a digital version for a quick refresh or a physical copy for deep study, the book’s structured approach will help you demystify the laws of energy.

The phrase "Engineering Thermodynamics by Vijayaraghavan PDF better" often surfaces in the quiet, late-night hours of a student’s life—a digital "incantation" born from equal parts desperation and ambition. Here is the deep story behind that search: The Weight of the "Blue Book"

In the world of mechanical engineering, thermodynamics is often the "gatekeeper" subject. For many students in South Asia, the standard international textbooks can feel like cold, abstract monoliths. They speak of ideal gases and reversible cycles in a language that feels miles away from the humid reality of a crowded library or a buzzing hostel room.

Dr. G.K. Vijayaraghavan’s book became a quiet legend because it translated those monoliths into a "student-friendly" dialect. Searching for a "better" PDF isn't just about piracy; it’s a search for clarity. It’s the story of a student who has stared at the Second Law of Thermodynamics for three hours and finally admits, "I need someone to explain this to me like we’re sitting in the same room." The "Better" Search

The word "better" in this specific search query usually points to a few hidden layers:

The Struggle for Access: Many students cannot afford the physical copy or find it out of stock. The "better" PDF is the one with high-resolution scans where the complex steam tables and P-V diagrams are actually legible.

The Exam Eve Ritual: It’s 2:00 AM before the final. The student realizes their notes are missing a crucial explanation of the Rankine Cycle. They aren't just looking for a file; they are looking for a lifeline.

The Local Context: Vijayaraghavan’s approach often aligns perfectly with specific university curricula (like Anna University). For these students, this isn't just a book—it’s the blueprint for their degree. The Intellectual Bridge

Beyond the technicality, the "story" is one of democratizing knowledge. Engineering is hard; thermodynamics is harder. When a student searches for this specific author, they are choosing a mentor who simplifies the complex. It represents the transition from "learning to pass" to "learning to understand."

The "better" PDF represents the digital ghost of a mentor, passed from one senior's hard drive to a junior's smartphone, keeping the engine of their education running when the official resources feel out of reach.

If you are looking for specific topics from the book or need help understanding a concept like entropy or cycles, I can break those down for you right now.

Help you solve a practice problem using the methods often found in this text? Break down the First or Second Law in simple terms?

Engineering Thermodynamics by Vijayaraghavan: Is This the "Better" Choice for Your Studies?

When tackling a subject as rigorous as thermal sciences, the textbook you choose can make the difference between struggling with equations and truly mastering the laws of energy. For many engineering students, the search for "Engineering Thermodynamics by Vijayaraghavan PDF" stems from a reputation for clarity and exam-oriented focus.

But is it actually the "better" option compared to industry standards like P.K. Nag or Cengel? Let’s break down what makes this book a staple for mechanical, automobile, and aeronautical engineering students. Why Students Look for Vijayaraghavan’s PDF

Dr. G.K. Vijayaraghavan’s approach to thermodynamics is specifically tailored for undergraduate curriculum requirements. Unlike some international editions that can feel overly theoretical, this text focuses on:

Simplified Language: Complex concepts like entropy and exergy are explained in plain English, making it accessible for students whose first language might not be English.

Solved Examples: The book is packed with step-by-step solutions to numerical problems—crucial for clearing university exams.

Exam Mapping: It aligns closely with the syllabus of major technical universities (like Anna University and others), ensuring you aren't wasting time on topics that won't be tested. Key Features That Make it "Better" for Beginners 1. Systematic Problem Solving

Thermodynamics is notoriously "math-heavy." Vijayaraghavan breaks down the First and Second Laws into manageable procedural steps. If you are someone who struggles with where to start a problem, his methodical approach acts as a reliable roadmap. 2. Clarity on Property Tables

Understanding how to use steam tables and refrigerant charts is a hurdle for many. This book provides clear instructions on extracting data for various states (saturated, superheated, etc.), which is the backbone of solving Rankine and Otto cycle problems. 3. Visual Aids

The diagrams—specifically P-V and T-s plots—are drawn with a focus on educational clarity rather than artistic flair. This helps students replicate them easily in their own answer scripts. Vijayaraghavan vs. P.K. Nag vs. Cengel

While Vijayaraghavan is "better" for quick exam preparation and fundamental clarity, how does it stack up against the "big names"?

P.K. Nag: Often considered the "Bible" of thermodynamics in India. It is more comprehensive but can be intimidating for a beginner.

Yunus Cengel: Known for its world-class illustrations and real-world applications. It is great for deep conceptual understanding but might feel "too broad" if you are on a tight study schedule.

Vijayaraghavan: The middle ground. It provides enough depth to pass with high marks without the "fluff" that can distract a student during finals week. A Note on Using PDFs

While searching for a PDF version is common for convenience and portability, nothing beats having a physical copy for highlighting and quick reference during long study sessions. If you do use a digital version, ensure it is the latest edition to include updated steam table values and revised SI units. Final Verdict To understand if this is the right book

If your goal is to build a rock-solid foundation for university exams and competitive tests without getting bogged down in dense academic jargon, Engineering Thermodynamics by Vijayaraghavan is arguably the better, more efficient choice. It bridges the gap between complex theory and practical problem-solving.

Introduction

Engineering Thermodynamics is a fundamental subject that deals with the relationships between heat, work, and energy in engineering systems. It provides a crucial foundation for various engineering disciplines, including mechanical, aerospace, chemical, and energy engineering. One popular textbook on this subject is "Engineering Thermodynamics" by Vijayaraghavan, which is widely used by students and professionals alike. In this write-up, we will review the book and discuss its significance, features, and benefits.

About the Author

The author, Vijayaraghavan, is a renowned expert in the field of thermodynamics and has extensive experience in teaching and research. He has written several books on thermodynamics, including "Engineering Thermodynamics", which has become a standard reference in the field.

Book Overview

"Engineering Thermodynamics" by Vijayaraghavan is a comprehensive textbook that covers the fundamental principles of thermodynamics, including the laws of thermodynamics, thermodynamic properties, and energy conversion systems. The book provides a clear and concise presentation of the subject matter, making it easy to understand for students and professionals.

Key Features of the Book

The book has several key features that make it an excellent resource for learning thermodynamics:

Benefits of the Book

The book provides several benefits to readers, including:

Why Vijayaraghavan's Book is Better

Compared to other textbooks on thermodynamics, Vijayaraghavan's book stands out due to its:

Conclusion

In conclusion, "Engineering Thermodynamics" by Vijayaraghavan is a comprehensive textbook that provides a thorough understanding of thermodynamic principles and their applications. The book's clear explanations, examples, and illustrations make it an excellent resource for students and professionals. Its extensive coverage, practical knowledge, and problem-solving skills make it a valuable resource for anyone interested in learning thermodynamics.

PDF Availability

The book "Engineering Thermodynamics" by Vijayaraghavan is available in PDF format, making it easily accessible to readers. However, it's essential to ensure that you obtain the PDF from a legitimate source to avoid any copyright issues.

Introduction

Engineering thermodynamics is a fundamental subject that plays a crucial role in the design and analysis of various engineering systems, including power plants, refrigeration systems, and heat transfer systems. As a vital branch of engineering, it deals with the relationships between heat, work, and energy. A comprehensive textbook is essential for engineering students to grasp the concepts and principles of thermodynamics. One such resource is "Engineering Thermodynamics" by Vijayaraghavan, available in PDF format. This essay argues that "Engineering Thermodynamics by Vijayaraghavan PDF" is a better resource for engineering students compared to other available textbooks.

Comprehensive Coverage

The textbook "Engineering Thermodynamics" by Vijayaraghavan provides a thorough and detailed coverage of the subject matter. The PDF version of the book offers a clear and concise presentation of the fundamental concepts, making it easier for students to understand and grasp the material. The author has successfully covered various topics, including thermodynamic properties, laws of thermodynamics, and applications of thermodynamics in engineering systems. The comprehensive coverage of the subject matter makes it an ideal resource for undergraduate and postgraduate engineering students.

Clear and Concise Explanations

One of the significant advantages of "Engineering Thermodynamics by Vijayaraghavan PDF" is its clear and concise explanations of complex concepts. The author has used simple language and provided numerous examples, illustrations, and diagrams to facilitate understanding. The text is well-organized, and the use of headings, subheadings, and bullet points makes it easy to navigate. The explanations are concise, accurate, and relevant, allowing students to quickly grasp the material.

Strong Foundation in Fundamentals

The textbook provides a strong foundation in the fundamental principles of thermodynamics, which is essential for engineering students. The author has emphasized the importance of understanding the basics of thermodynamics, including the laws of thermodynamics, thermodynamic properties, and energy conversion processes. By mastering these fundamental concepts, students can develop a solid foundation for more advanced studies in engineering thermodynamics.

Practical Applications

"Engineering Thermodynamics by Vijayaraghavan PDF" also focuses on the practical applications of thermodynamics in engineering systems. The author has included numerous examples and case studies that illustrate the relevance of thermodynamics in real-world engineering problems. This approach helps students to appreciate the significance of thermodynamics in engineering practice and prepares them to tackle complex problems in their future careers.

Comparison with Other Resources

Compared to other available textbooks on engineering thermodynamics, "Engineering Thermodynamics by Vijayaraghavan PDF" stands out due to its clarity, comprehensiveness, and practical approach. Other textbooks often lack the depth and breadth of coverage, or may be too theoretical, making it difficult for students to relate the concepts to practical engineering problems. The PDF version of the book is also more accessible and convenient for students, allowing them to access the material anywhere, anytime.

Conclusion

In conclusion, "Engineering Thermodynamics by Vijayaraghavan PDF" is a better resource for engineering students compared to other available textbooks. The comprehensive coverage, clear and concise explanations, strong foundation in fundamentals, and practical applications make it an ideal textbook for undergraduate and postgraduate engineering students. The PDF version of the book offers added convenience and accessibility, making it an excellent resource for students who want to excel in engineering thermodynamics.

Comprehensive Post: Engineering Thermodynamics Dr. G.K. Vijayaraghavan

If you are a student of Mechanical, Automobile, or Aeronautical engineering, Dr. G.K. Vijayaraghavan’s Engineering Thermodynamics

is a staple resource designed to simplify complex energy concepts. Published by Lakshmi Publications

, it is specifically tailored to align with university syllabi, making it a "better" choice for exam preparation compared to bulkier international texts. Core Content & Syllabus Alignment

The textbook is structured into five comprehensive units that cover the essential pillars of thermal science: Unit 1: Basic Concepts & First Law

– Covers the concept of continuum, macroscopic vs. microscopic views, and the First Law of Thermodynamics applied to closed and open systems. Unit 2: Second Law & Entropy

– Deep dives into heat engines, refrigerators, Carnot cycles, and the Clausius inequality. Unit 3: Pure Substances & Steam Cycles

– Explains phase rules and property diagrams (p-V, T-s, h-s) and analyzes Rankine, reheat, and regenerative cycles. Unit 4: Ideal & Real Gases

– Focuses on gas laws, Dalton’s law of partial pressures, and thermodynamic relations. Unit 5: Gas Mixtures & Psychrometry

– Essential for understanding HVAC systems, including humidity calculations and psychrometric charts. Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology Why Students Prefer This Version Engineering Thermodynamics Course Guide | PDF - Scribd

If you are looking for a reliable resource for your studies, Engineering Thermodynamics by Dr. G.K. Vijayaraghavan

is widely considered one of the best textbooks for mastering the fundamentals. Here is a post you can use to share or recommend it:

📘 Master the Heat: Why "Engineering Thermodynamics" by Vijayaraghavan is a Must-Have

Struggling with entropy, cycles, or the laws of thermodynamics? It’s time to switch to a resource that actually makes sense. Dr. G.K. Vijayaraghavan’s

approach to Engineering Thermodynamics is a game-changer for students and professionals alike. Here’s why this PDF/book stands out: Simplified Concepts:

It breaks down complex thermal energy principles into easy-to-digest explanations. Step-by-Step Solved Problems:

Perfect for exam prep, with clear logical flows for every calculation. Visual Learning:

Packed with diagrams and steam tables that help you visualize what’s happening inside the system. Exam-Oriented:

Specifically tailored to align with major university syllabi, ensuring you focus on what matters most.

Stop scrolling through confusing notes and grab a copy of the Vijayaraghavan guide. It’s the "better" way to ace your thermo exams! 🚀

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Verdict: Better for understanding the subject and long-term retention.

This version (often associated with Vikas Publishing) feels more like a traditional textbook. It strikes a balance between the rigor of foreign authors (like Cengel or Boles) and the local needs of Indian universities.

  • Cons:
  • Who is this better for?


    This is the million-dollar question. Here is a direct comparison table based on student reviews and syllabus alignment:

    | Feature | Vijayaraghavan PDF | Cengel (Standard) | Moran Shapiro | | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | | Language Tone | Conversational, exam-aligned | Enthusiastic, reader-friendly | Formal, theoretical | | Problem Difficulty | Medium (Ideal for passing exams) | High (Ideal for competitive exams) | Very High (Ideal for graduate school) | | Steam Table Usage | Explained step-by-step | Assumes prior knowledge | Highly rigorous | | PDF Searchability | Excellent (if high-quality scan) | Excellent (official digital copy) | Excellent | | Price (Legit) | Low to Medium | High | High | | Best For | Undergraduate university exams | Concept building & GATE | Postgraduate research |

    The Verdict: If you are a working professional or a PhD student, stick with Moran. If you love colorful graphics, stick with Cengel. But if you are a second-year engineering student trying to pass a university exam with a good grade while actually understanding a heat engine works? Vijayaraghavan is objectively better.

    If you are an engineering student in India or a mechanical engineering aspirant globally, you have likely heard of Engineering Thermodynamics by G. Vijayaraghavan. It is a cornerstone text for state PSU exams, GATE, and university curricula. However, a quick search reveals a massive demand for a specific file: "engineering thermodynamics by vijayaraghavan pdf better."

    The keyword tells a compelling story. Students want the Vijayaraghavan content, but they are simultaneously looking for something better—either a higher quality PDF, an updated edition, or a more usable format. Many PDFs are images of pages

    This article will dissect why the rogue PDF versions circulating online are problematic, what "better" actually means in this context, and how to access superior digital alternatives without compromising your exam preparation.


    Each gate of a 74c14 is capable of delivering up to 20mA with a 12v supply, 15mA with a 9v supply and 10mA with a 5v supply. A buffer transistor can be used to increase the output current if needed. 
    Fig: 7 shows how a buffer transistor is connected to the output of a gate:

    engineering thermodynamics by vijayaraghavanpdf better

    The voltage and current (called the "supply") for the 6 gates in a 74c14 comes from pin 14. The ground pin for the chip is pin 7. Each gate on a circuit diagram is normally shown without the power rails. It is understood they are present.
    Fig: 8 shows the power rails for a 74c14 and the individual gates:
     

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    HOW A GATE WORKS
    The next diagram (it is a repeat of Fig: 4 above) shows how the output of a Schmitt gate jumps from HIGH-to-LOW and LOW-to-HIGH as the input voltage rises and falls:

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    The output of a Schmitt Trigger gate is the opposite of the input. When the input is LOW, the output is HIGH.
    As the input rises to 66% of rail voltage, the output instantly goes LOW and the input has to fall to 33% of rail voltage for the output to go HIGH. 
    The gap between 33% and 66% is called the HYSTERESIS GAP and this has been specially designed so that the input does not detect small fluctuations.

    engineering thermodynamics by vijayaraghavanpdf better

    Fig: 9 shows a voltage being applied to the Schmitt gate. The voltage is 55% of rail and this is not sufficient to change the output: 

    engineering thermodynamics by vijayaraghavanpdf better

    The following figure shows a normal gates. It changes when the input rises above about 53% of rail voltage and changes back when the input falls below 47%.

     engineering thermodynamics by vijayaraghavanpdf better 

    The following diagram shows the very small gap for a normal chip, where the output jumps from HIGH-to-LOW in an uncontrolled manner:

     engineering thermodynamics by vijayaraghavanpdf better

    Here's the secret of a Schmitt gate: Any noise (up to 60%) entering a Schmitt Trigger will not alter the condition of the gate. Any noise up to 55% entering a normal gate will change the output:

    engineering thermodynamics by vijayaraghavanpdf better  engineering thermodynamics by vijayaraghavanpdf better

    There is one other problem with a normal gate. When the input is in the range of about 47% to 53%, the output goes high/low very rapidly. This is called the INTERMEDIATE ZONE and the output does not know if it should be HIGH or LOW. 
    Fig: 10 shows the input voltage varying in this intermediate zone and the output fluctuating very rapidly:

    engineering thermodynamics by vijayaraghavanpdf better

    Even a fixed voltage in the intermediate zone will cause the output to fluctuate:

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    This is due to the high gain of the amplifier in the gate and it does not know if the output should be high or low.  It is essential for the input voltage to pass through this zone very quickly to prevent the gate "oscillating."
    The output will only fluctuate when the input voltage is rising slowly or sits in the zone, as it takes a short period of time for the gate to start oscillating. 
    For this reason a normal gate is not suitable for low frequency (slow-rising waveforms).
    The Schmitt gate does not have this problem. 
    If the voltage on the input of a Schmitt Trigger rises very slowly, the output changes at 66% and it will only change back to its original state when the voltage drops to 33% of rail voltage. At no time does the gate self-oscillate. This is one of the advantages of the Schmitt Trigger. 

    Fig: 12 shows how a Schmitt gate can be considered to be similar to a common-emitter NPN transistor:

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    The similarity is only approximate and you can see the general operation of each circuit has some similarities. It is important to note that the two circuits cannot be interchanged without modifying the surrounding components. 

    SWITCH DEBOUNCE
    A Schmitt gate can be used to eliminate noise from a switch.  When any type of mechanical switch is closed, the contacts "bounce" due to the dirt and an oxide coating on the contacts and this puts noise on the line. Sometimes this noise is seen as additional pulses by high-speed digital circuits with the result of "false-counting." The Schmitt gate circuit below prevents multiple pulses from being passed to a circuit:

    engineering thermodynamics by vijayaraghavanpdf better
    Mouseover to see switch action

    SIGNAL CONDITIONING
    The Schmitt Trigger can be used to improve the quality of a signal by speeding up the rise and fall times. The rise and fall time is called the TRANSITION TIME. The Schmitt trigger will reshape a waveform into a square wave. 
    It will also convert a SINEWAVE or ANALOGUE waveform to a SQUAREWAVE. 
    Any form of improving a signal to a square wave is called SIGNAL CONDITIONING
    This is also called RISE-TIME improving. The Schmitt Trigger produces a fast-switching digital output suitable for edge triggering.
    Fig: 14 shows waveforms improved by a Schmitt Trigger.  Only excursions above 66% will appear in the output:

    engineering thermodynamics by vijayaraghavanpdf better

    SWITCHING THRESHOLD 
    The SWITCHING THRESHOLD is the point where a signal changes logic states. 
    A Schmitt Trigger has two thresholds - or TRIP POINTS. A positive going threshold (Vt+) and a negative going threshold (Vt-). 
    The positive going threshold is also called the UPPER THRESHOLD and occurs at 66% of rail voltage. The LOWER THRESHOLD occurs at 33% rail voltage. 
    The difference between the two thresholds is called the HYSTERESIS ZONE.
    A signal will not change the state of the gate until it passes the positive going threshold. A high signal that enters the Hysteresis Zone will not change the state of the gate until it reaches the negative going threshold.
    Besides preventing unwanted oscillation, the Hysteresis Zone also provides noise immunity.

    THE 4093 IC
    Another common Schmitt Trigger IC is the 4093. This is a Quad 2-Input Schmitt Trigger.

    engineering thermodynamics by vijayaraghavanpdf better

    The CD 4093 is sometimes used for its gating capability. One of the inputs of the gate can used to turn the gate on and off.  This is called GATING. This feature can be achieved with a single-input Schmitt Trigger with a diode. This allows the 74c14 IC to be used. 
    Fig: 16 shows how to substitute a 4093 NAND gate for a single-input gate:

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    SUBSTITUTING THE 555
    The 555 can be replaced by the 74c15 in almost every case, with the advantage of lower quiescent current and the availability of 6 building blocks. The 74c14 Schmitt gate is comparable with the 7555 (the CMOS version of the 555).
    Fig 17 shows a 10 MINUTE TIMER. The circuit is also called a DELAY circuit:

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    The 555 replaced by a Schmitt gate and a transistor to provide the drive-current:
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    SUMMARY
    A Schmitt Trigger is a bistable (two-state) device used to square-up waveforms with slow rise and fall times. The most common applications are THRESHOLD DETECTION and SIGNAL CONDITIONING. Speeding up the TRANSITION (rise and fall) time affects the shape of the waveform, turning poor signals into reliable waveforms capable of driving digital ICs.
    The THRESHOLD DETECTION feature will prevent signals with insufficient amplitude (such as noise) from activating the clock lines of digital chips.


    See Page 76 for more discussion on the Hex Schmitt Trigger

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